Timeline of Western Sudan to 1400s

The following is a timeline for the early Western Sudan, basically everything before imperial Mali. While there remains so much to discover and uncover about the Western Sudanic region before the major kingdoms converted to Islam and even deeper in antiquity, the paucity of written sources means we will probably remain in the dark for the foreseeable future on many aspects of its early history. That said, the early Arabic sources do contain a wealth of information on the area, from Takrur to Kawkaw. We decided to attempt a tentative timeline for the region (including the Sahara and sometimes North Africa or the Mediterranean) to illustrate some of the important personages, developments, locales, and events that transpired in our region from the 6th century until the end of the 13th. Since we mainly relied on written sources, the excellent  Corpus of early Arabic sources for West African History edited by Levtzion and Hopkins. Our other sources include Delafosse, Trimingham on Takrur, the French and English translations of the Timbuktu tarikhs, and Arabic Medieval Inscriptions from the Republic of Mali: Epigraphy, Chronicles, and Songhay-Tuareg History by Paulo Fernando de Moraes Farias.

294: Mint in Carthage (gold from West Africa a source?)

c.500: Imported cloth found at Kissi, evidence of pre-Islamic trans-Saharan trade

568: Garamantian ruler sent envoys to Byzantium

666/667: Uqba b. Nafi conquers Fazzan and Kawar, imposing tribute payments in slaves

before 732/33: Wahb b. Munabbih mentioned Nuba, Zanj, Qazan (Fazzan?), Zaghawa, Habasha, Qibt and Barbar as the race of Sudan 

734-741: During this period, Muslim raids of Habib b. Abi Ubayda 

740: Revolt of the Berbers during governorship of Abd Allah b. al-Habhab

744/45: Abd al-Rahman became governor of Ifriqiya; said to have begun digging wells on the Saharan trade route

757/58: Foundation of Sijilmassa

761/62: Tahard founded

804/820 or 823-872: Imam of Tahart sent Muhammad b. 'Arafa in a deputation to a Sudan king with a gift

814-15: Walls of Sijilmasa constructed

837: Death of king Sahaja king Tilutan

c.850: Foundation of earliest dynasty of Takrur, the Dya'ogo (Trimingham)

872/73: al-Yaqubi described Kawkaw as the most powerful kingdom of the blacks, obeyed by al-MRW, MuRDBH, al-HRBR, the kingdom of the Sanhaja, TDhKRYR, Zayanir, 'RWR and BQARWT; Ghana also powerful and described as having gold mines and vassal kings ('AM, Sama)

by 889/90: Anbiya people of Sanhaja mentioned by al-Yaqubi, camel nomads with royal capital at Ghust (Awdaghust) whose king lacks religion and raids the Sudan; Lamta Berbers who produce lamtiyya shields live between Zawila and Kawar, and adjoining Zawila to the route to Awjila and Ajdabiya

900: Death of Sanhaja king, Yalattan

c.903: Anbiya described as land of Lamta who produce the lamtiyya shields; people of Ghana grow sorghum and cowpeaes and wear clothes of skins

between 908-938: royal palace at Gao Ancien built

909: Tahart destroyed

918: End of reign of Tamim, Sanhaja king (Sanhaja divided politically again)

918/19: Foundation of Zawila in the Fazzan by Abd Alla b. Khattab al-Hawwari

944-45: Growth of power of Abu Yazid in Ifriqiya; Abu Yazid was born in Kawkaw to a Zanata father 

950/51: Ibn Hawqal went to Sijilmasa, saw many shaykhs and much wealth; Ibn Hawal heard from Abu Ishaq Ibrahim b. Abd Allah that the Sanhaja king of Awdaghust, Tinbarutan b. Usfayshar, king of all Sanhaja, had been ruling for 20 years and had 300,000 tents (plus shelters and huts) in his domain. Ibn Hawqal also reported story of Tinbarutan defeating a Berber tribe with the vast camel herd of his sister, the wealthiest person in the tribe

952: Check for 42,000 dinars in Awdaghust

961/2-972: Tin Yarutan b. Wisanu b. Nizar Sanhaja king, received tribute from more than 20 Sudan kings; also, this king aided the ruler of Masin against Awgham, east of Ghana, with 50,000 camelry

973: Death of Muhammad b. Yusuf al-Warraq, whose geographical work was a major source for al-Bakri

c.977: final version of Ibn Hawqal's work written, including mention of a check concerning a debt of Muhammad b. Abi Sa'dun in Awdaghust for 42,000 dinars and the kings of Tadmakka, Fusahr b. Alfara and Inaw b. Sabanzak

c.980: Dya'ogo dynasty of Takrur overthrown by the Manna who came from the Nyakhate clan of Dyara (Soninke)

by 990: al-Muhallabi describes Kawkaw (Kuku) as ruled by a king who pretends to be Muslim, names the town Sarnah and its markets

1009-10: Conversion to Islam by King Zuwa Kusay of Kawkaw; said by Trimingham to have moved capital from Kukiya to Kawkaw

1013/14: Earliest known epitaph from Essouk (Tadmakka)

1037-1065: Reign of Ferdinand I, "Galician" king who received a stone substance from the Dar'a valley that takes on the consistency of flax; Fernando I later sent a kerchief made of this to the Emperor in Constantinople,  who in return, sent him a crown

1040/41: Death of Warjabi, Takrur king who converted to Islam

1042: Earliest Islamic epitaph at Kawkaw

1043/44: Wazjay b. Yasin imposed Islam in Takrur 

1048: Early rise of Almoravids

1054/55: Sijilmasa residents massacre Almoravid garrison left in the town after Almoravids conquer it; Awdaghust invaded by Almoravids, and city described as divided due to conflict between Zanata and Arabs (Almoravids persecuted the residents for recognizing the suzerainty of Ghana)

1056-57: Yahya b. Umar fought Banu Gudala with the aid of Labbi b. Warjabi, the king of Takrur

1063: Start of reign of Tunka Menin of Ghana (Wagadu), nephew of previous ruler, Basi

1067-68: Commander of the Almoravids is Abu Bakr b. Umar

1076-77: Conversion of Ghana to Islam

1076-1180: Soso ruled by pagan Soninke dynasty with clan name Dyari-so (Trimingham)

1079-1082: Islam adopted by people of Gao (Mahmud Kati)

c.1083/84: Ghana attacked Tadmakka

1100s: Ghana said to raid Amima and Barbara peoples for slaves; Timbuktu growing in importance for trade

c.1100-1120: Reign of Banna-Bubu of Soso, when Fulbe appear in region and members of the royal family married wives from the So or Ferboe clan, becoming the Sose and Soso

1108: Death of queen S.wa at Gao Saney

1110: Death of Abu Abdullah Muhammad b. Abdu Llah b. Zaghi at Gao Saney, with a stela in Almerian style; death of king Abu Bakr ibn Abu Quhafa at Gao Saney

1116/17: Ghana's royal palace constructed (al-Idrisi)

1117: Death of Aisha, daughter of King Kuri, probably the same Korey or K.r.y in the Zuwa dynasty lists

1119: Death of Queen M.s.r (Gao Saney)

1120: Death of King Yama b. K.ma b. Zaghi, or Umar b. al-Khatta, a king who waged holy war

c.1125-1150: Zafun king received with honor in Marrakesh by Almoravids

1126: Death of Fatima, daughter of King Mama (or Yama or Nama) (Gao Saney)

1127: Death of Za (Zu'a) b. Queen Hakkiya (Saney inscriptions)

1140: Death of Bariqa, daughter of Kuri (Gao Saney inscriptions)

after 1154: Kawkaw mentioned as wealthy town reached by caravans from Egypt, Waraqlan, and Sijilmasa; inhabitants grow sesame, sugarcane, rice

1154: Completion of al-Idrisi's geographical work, which describes Ghana and Kawkaw as Muslim states 

1180: Soso dynasty overthrown by a soldier named Dyara Kante (Trimingham)

c.1199: letter to the king of Ghana refers to him as a pagan (perhaps a reference to the Soso?)

c.1203: Sosso conquest of Ghana

1203: Death of King Fanda, son of 'Aru Bani (Aru-Baani/Arbaani/Aru Bine/Arbine), son of Zaghi (or Zaghay)

1210: Funerary stelae of a Songhay woman, Buwy or Waybiya, at Gorongobo

before 1222: al-Sharishi described Ghana as Muslim kingdom with schools and many Maghribi merchants who stay, buy slaves for concubinage and are well-received by the king

1224: Wealthy Soninke families plus Arabs ad Berbers move to Walata (Biru), according to Delafosse

c.1235: Sundiata Keita defeated Soso king at the Battle of Kirina

1251: Death of Zuwa of Kawkaw

1253: Death of Ai'isha, daughter of king Zuwa Kayna (Gao Saney)

1264-65: Death of Yama Kuri (Yama Korey), son of king R.w.a (Zuwa)

1260-1277: Mansa Wali reigned in Mali, who made the hajj to Mecca during the reign of the Mamluk sultan Baybars

1299-1308: Reign of Mansa Sakura, freed slave usurper who also made the pilgrimage to Mecca and died on his way back. By c.1300, was in control of the Niger Bend

c.1300: Manna dynasty of Takrur replaced by Tondyon

c.1312: Mansa Muhammad launched expedition into the Atlantic 

1324: Pilgrimage of Mansa Musa 

1352-53: Ibn Battuta in Mali

1360: Mansa Mari Jata II sent an ambassador to Morocco who brought a giraffe

1373/74: Death of Mansa Mari Jata II

1390: Mansa Maga III takes power

1433: Tuaregs seize control of Timbuktu

West African Food in the Middle Ages

Lewicki's West African Food in the Middle Ages is one of those useful reference books for anyone interested in finding out more about the alimentary factors in the history of Sudanic West Africa before the changes wrought by the introduction of American crops after 1492. It covers the period from the 900s until the early 1500s, mainly drawing from medieval external Arabic sources and later post-Leo Africanus sources from Europe or West African chronicles. For anyone interested in the Western Sudan from Takrur and the Senegambia to Mali and Songhay, there will be some useful information. Even Hausaland, Saharan and Sahelian Tuareg, Mauritania, Kanem, and Borno are included. The societies south of the savanna are usually omitted, though references to kola and Yoruba cuisine will occasionally appear in the text.

Unfortunately, since the book is basically a list of the various types of food and some of the dishes prepared in West Africa's Sahel and savanna lands, there is not too much in the way of analysis. Moreover, since many of our sources are external Arabic geographies or accounts, there is a lot of room for error, doubt, and uncertainty. For instance, Lewicki theorizes from al-Umari's account of Mali that criminals or convicts may have been sacrificed in an annual yam ritual akin to that of the Asante and other groups south of the empire of Mali. He could very well be correct, but there are too many uncertainties and unknown factors in the interpretation of the Arabic sources or the chronology of certain customs or culinary habits. Some dishes and drinks, such as mead, the use of millet for beer and porridges, sorghum, and milk or butter, appear across the region and are probably of very deep antiquity in West Africa. Imported spices and things such as wheat, onions, lemons, peaches, and sugarcane attest to changes in consumption patterns tied to trade, migration, and cultural shifts. One can look at, for instance, al-Bakri's description of Awdaghust, with its North Africans (coming from societies where wheat was an important crop) and its black women slave cooks well-known for their confections as an example of the probable culinary culture that characterized other Sahelian trading towns or centers. 

Despite the structural problems of this book basically consisting of a series of lists and some of the necessarily speculative theories or conclusions, it really does provide greater clarity as to the basic diet of various West African peoples. The ancestors of the Imraguen of Mauritania, who feasted on sea turtles, or the Bambara consumption of dogs is explained adequately. Widespread eating of carrion is also elucidated, bringing more context to Ibn Battuta's negative perception of dietary habits in Mali. Moreover, the early introduction of Mediterranean and Asian crops or domesticates in West Africa raises all sorts of interesting questions. Lewicki was writing at a time when Arkell's theory of Christian Nubian influence in lands west of the Nile was great, but looking at Kanem, one finds early references to sugarcane and Mediterranean crops. Some of these were not common in Borno during the 19th century but one cannot avoid the obvious conclusion that Kanem-Borno was part of a complex pattern of agricultural and cultural change across West Africa. 

Takrur and the Coast?

One of the early West African states whose rulers converted to Islam at an early date was Takrur, located in the Middle Senegal Valley. Takrur became so well-known in Egypt and the Middle East that the name of their kingdom became a common appellation for the entirety of the "Western Sudan." Yet, despite Takrur being well-known to informed persons in Egypt, Syria, and North Africa from at least the 11th century onwards, surprisingly little is known of it. Prior to al-Bakri there does not appear to be any extant Arabic records that explicitly allude to the kingdom of Takrur. Yet archaeological evidence suggests the rise of polities along the Senegal River by the 500s, with ties to long-distance trade, iron metallurgy, riverine resources, and salt. Evidence of camel remains in the Senegal River Valley also suggest possibly ancient forms of trans-Saharan contact, or at least movement of peoples and goods from the southern Sahara to the Sahel and savanna. This period, perhaps corresponding with the early Jaa Ogo dynasty of Takrur, may have consolidated through iron metallurgy and this intra-regional trade. 

Part of the problem for Takrur may be Ghana overshadowing it, despite Takrur's conversion to Islam before Ghana. Ghana was mentioned first in external Arabic sources, and although Takrur was never subdued by Ghana, the latter kingdom may have been the more powerful with better connections to the sources of gold used in trans-Saharan contact. One also suspects that Takrur, located on the western end of the Sudanic region, may have suffered from its more peripheral location with regards to the movement of goods from West Africa to the Maghrib and Egypt. Takrur, and other parts of the Senegal River Valley, would also later fall under the domination of Mali, and may have been important for access to sea salt as an additional source besides Saharan mines. Unfortunately, the number of primary sources which could shed light on the nature of Takrur and its trading partners is restricted to the external Arabic sources which point to ties with the "Lamlam" (victims of Takrur slave raids), Awdaghust, Awlil, and traders from the east and north (Arabs and Berbers were also active in towns under Takrur, including the eponymous capital and Silla. 

However, surprisingly, little attention has been paid to Takrur's access to sea salt and coastal trade with North Africa. Due to the paucity of sources, one cannot ascertain to what extent this actually occurred, but Takrur was intimately linked to Awlil and, presumably, the island of Ayuna, a source of sea salt, ambergris, and turtle meat located somewhere on the mouth of the Senegal River or Mauritanian coast. Since Takrur was known for the export of gold and slaves, one would think some of these exports would have traveled west along the Senegal River to Awlil, where ships from the Maghrib were said to have visited. Indeed, Arabic sources allude to Awlil as the last point ships from the Maghrib traveled to, implying it was a well-known anchorage and presumably engaging in trade with the local Banu Gudala Berbers. For example, the Kital al-Istibsar of the 12th century makes this clear:

There is a salt mine also in the land of the Gudala at a place called Walili on the coast of the Ocean and from there it is carried by caravan to the neighboring countries. Near Walili in the sea is an island called Ayuna. At high tide it may be reached only by boats, but at low tie it may be reached on foot. Much ambergris is found there. The people there mainly live on the flesh of turtles, which are very abundant in that place and are so extremely large that a man may get into the shell (mahar) taken from a turtle's back and go fishing in the seas, as in a boat (Corpus of Early Arabic Sources, p. 142).

This same source mentions the island of Ayuna as "the farthest point reached by ships and the last anchorage in the Maghrib." And while it points to the salt from "Walili" being traded overland, earlier sources, mainly al-Idrisi, point to the use of river boats to transport salt: 

The Island of Awlil is in the sea near the coast. The famous salt deposit is there. No other salt deposit is known in the land of the Sudan. The salt is carried from there to all the towns of the Sudan. Boats come to this island, and the salt is loaded on them. The boats then go to the mouth of the Nil, which is one day's run from the island. They then proceed up the Nile to Sila, Takrur, Barisa, Ghana, and the other towns of Wanqara and Kugha as well as to all the towns of the Sudan" (Corpus of Early Arabic Sources, p. 106-107).

While secondary sources seem to disagree on when or if Takrur ever directly seized control of Awlil, al-Idrisi places the town of Awlil in the lands of the Maqzara of the Sudan. Ibn Sa'id also quoted al-Idrisi's statement, indicating the use of ships to carry salt from Awlil up the Senegal River. Of course, al-Idrisi's conception of every West Africa town lying along the "Nile" was incorrect, but he was probably correct in the use of ships from Awlil to carry salt directly to the "Land of the Blacks," which would have required it to pass through lands controlled by the kingdom of Takrur, which dominated Sila, Barisa, and, by the 13th century, Qalanbu (possibly the ancient kingdom of Galam), a well-known river port. One would assume the ancient town of Sanghana, consisting of two towns on both banks of the Senegal River, and said by al-Bakri to be closest to the Banu Gudala territory, fell under the rule of Takrur. 

One would think the rulers of Takrur would have endeavored to benefit from a coastal trade route to their west as well as the more well-known overland routes to Awdaghust and beyond. Al-Bakri and others mention Awlil as a source of salt for Awdaghust's trade with the lands to the south, and probably the source of Awdaghust's ambergris trade. Why not also trade gold, slaves, ivory, cotton, and other commodities along the Senegal River, dominated by Takrur, to the west to Awlil, where ships from the Mediterranean could transfer goods to the Maghrib and beyond? This would have allowed Takrur access to goods from the north without relying solely on Awdaghust or Ghana and its trading network to the east. Moreover, it may have increased the reputation of the kingdom as a source for gold from Bambuk and other lands without the costly trans-Saharan journey. 

Unfortunately, none of the Arabic sources are sufficiently clear to establish a regular coastal trade at Awlil that linked Takrur to the Mediterranean. Indeed, some of the sources suggest a possible pre-Islamic trade that connected Takrur to the mysterious Qamnuriya "Sudan" to the north, using ancient overland trade routes. Besides, other accounts of shipwrecks of mariners from the Mediterranean along the western coast of Africa seem to indicate that it was not very common for mariners to travel beyond southern Morocco. If, indeed, they regularly visited Awlil by the Senegal River, one would assume more sources could attest to this. Perhaps archaeological excavations in the region will shed light on this, as well as more research into the Banu Gudala. For instance, one of the tales of lost sailors mentions Banu Gudala, who did not seem too shocked by the presence of sailors on their coast. Moreover, a mention of "Tochoron" in a 14th century Iberian book on the known kingdoms of the world mentions travel to the West African coast from North Africa, to reach the "River of Gold" (the Senegal and Niger rivers, which were believed to be connected to the Nile). While the text describes a fictional journey around the known world, its author was clearly well-informed, and perhaps was not entirely fabricating details about West Africa, the Senegal River and trading ships. "Tochoron" or 'Takrur does appear in the text, but the narrative describes an overland route to get there across the Sahara. Nevertheless, Takrur should still have been a leading power along the Senegal River Valley, and probably closely linked to any trading activities at the mouth of the Senegal River or nearby coastal regions, which might explain why "Tochoror" appeared on European maps as early as 1339.