Haitian Creole and Education in the US: An Annotated Bibliography

 1. Joseph, C. M. “Haitians in the U.S.: Language, Politics and Education.” In A. Spears & C. Joseph (Eds,) The Haitian Creole Language: History, Structure, Use and Education (pp. 229-248). Lexington Books. 

Carole M. Berotte Joseph’s chapter provides an overview on the role of Haitian Creole in the context of Haitian immigration to the US. According to Joseph, Haitian Creole remains largely an oral language among Haitians in the US. French retains its prestige among immigrants, however. Historically, in the case of monolingual Haitian Creole speakers, it was a struggle for teachers to realize Haitians speak Creole, not French. Indeed, an ongoing stigma attached to Creole and the paucity of instructional materials and Creole-speaking instructors has led to Haitian bilingual programs often being of poor quality. Another obstacle faced by Haitian Creole-speaking students was their classification as simply African-American, which carried assumptions of English-speaking backgrounds. This, unfortunately, led to many Haitian students not receiving the language support they need. Furthermore, fewer bilingual programs in Creole are now available in New York City, Boston or Miami. Ultimately, Joseph’s chapter attests to the unequal status of Creole in both Haiti and the US, where many Creole-speaking students either did not or do not receive ESL services. Lamentably, this contributes to limitations on developing full fluency or literacy in Creole. 

2. Zéphir, F. (1997).  “Haitian Creole Language and Bilingual Education in the United States.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development (Vol. 18, Issue 3), 223-237. 

Flore Zephir, “Haitian Creole Language and Bilingual Education in the United States”

Zephir’s article passionately argues in favor of first language instruction for Haitian students. Citing 1992 research, the author claims Haitian students were the third largest minority group in NYC public schools (Zephir, 1997). Moreover, the school system was guilty of a failure to recognize the linguistic and cultural diversity of Black populations in the US. Haitian students were seen as Blacks and not placed in programs that would have helped by using the Creole language. In fact, Haitians face triple discrimination as Blacks, for coming from the Global South, and for speaking Creole, which is often not seen as a legitimate language (Zephir, 1997). In order to address the issue, Zephir argues that schools must stop assuming Haitian students are African-Americans, Creole must be accepted as a fully legitimate language, and children should receive home language instruction. According to research, the use of the students’ L1 in instruction can lower the affective filter, so that learning can occur. More comprehensible input would be available for students by having teachers with knowledge of the culture and sociolinguistic reality of Creole-speaking students. Thus, according to this author, Haitian Creole speakers continue to face linguistic discrimination that partly mirrors the lower status of Creole in Haiti. Similarly, the loss of the students’ L1 is inferred due to the lack of home language instruction, implying most students probably never develop full literacy in Creole.

3. Cenat, M.L (2011). “Myths and Realities: A History of Haitian Creole Language Programs in New York City.” Journal of Haitian Studies, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 73-91

Cenat’s research interprets the history of Haitian Creole programs in New York City. Beginning with the controversial Bernard Reform of 1979 in Haiti and the struggles of Haitian Creole to gain full inclusion, Cenat then summarizes the debate on Creole genesis (Cenat, 2011). Due to the debate on the relexification hypothesis and the “exceptional” status of Creole languages, some view the tongue as incapable of being a significant instructional tool. This background is relevant for understanding the early struggles of Haitian students in New York. Initially, schools used French with Haitians in their language policies. Later, in the 1980s and 1990s, Haitian Creole increasingly won support through the organizing efforts of activists, teachers, organizations, and academics, like linguist Yves Dejean (Cenat 2011). This led, in 1981, to the Haitian Parent-Teacher Training Project, which worked with Limited English Proficient Haitian students by preparing Haitian educators and engaging in outreach to Haitian parents. Later, in 1993, the Haitian Bilingual Educational Technical Assistance Center (HABETAC) was founded at the City College of New York. Unlike the Haitian Parent-Teacher Training Project, HABETAC supported schools serving Limited English Proficient Haitian students, often targeting Haitian teachers. A number of public schools in the city even offered bilingual programs, although many Haitians believed Haitian students were still not receiving enough programs to accommodate them. This led to a class action lawsuit in 1996, filed against the Board of Education and the New York State Education Department. While the lawsuit was eventually stalled, many Haitian Creole bilingual programs began to disappear by the end of the 1990s. According to Cenat, today only 3 NYC public schools have bilingual Haitian Creole programs. This decline in the number of bilingual programs is accompanied by a restructuring of high schools that has led to several lacking enough Haitian students for a bilingual program. Then, the closure of HABETAC further contributed to the decline of bilingual education for Haitians. Haitian families were now left without a center. Meanwhile, the support for the language rights of Haitian students was revitalized by grassroots groups like Flanbwayan, Kongo and Gran Chimen Sant Kiltirel. The article’s history of Haitian Creole programs illustrates how Haitian Creole continues to face exclusion, discrimination and marginalization in education. The Haitian language occupies a position vis-a-vis English that, once again, mirrors its position with regard to French. Language loss, on the other hand, or at least the failure to develop full literacy, is likely to occur since there is not adequate support for instruction in Creole. 

4.Buxton, C.A., Lee, O., Mahotiere, M. (2008). “The Role of Language in Academic and Social Transition of Haitian Children and Their Parents to Urban U.S. Schools.” Bilingual Research Journal, 31: 47-74.

Buxton, Lee and Mahotiere use interviews with Haitian educators, parents, and students to comprehend the role of language in the academic and social transition of Haitians to urban schools in the US. Relying on the theoretical constructs of linguistic identity and actor networks, the authors find 3 themes: an affinity for multiple languages, a wish to be multicultural, and a responsibility to help others in their community (Buxton, Lee & Mahotiere, 2008). Drawing on the earlier scholarship and the sociocultural roles of language, the authors claim Haitians understand how language can be used to represent power or the lack thereof. In addition, the low status of Creole in Haiti has shaped how some Haitian parents perceive Creole in their children’s US schooling. Since, in Haiti, these parents likely attended schools in which instruction was entirely in French, they may not seek Creole language support for their children. The authors argue that linguistic identity is central to knowing how individuals balance their integration in US cultural and linguistic forms with the maintenance of their home languages and cultural practices. Significantly, the authors found that all 3 groups (Haitian parents, educators and students) expressed a desire to maintain Haitian Creole and to improve fluency and literacy. The teachers, too, support the L1 of their students. Nonetheless, the majority of the parents and teachers plus many of the interviewed students also claimed to regularly use French and wished to maintain the French language. This suggests French retains its prestige status among Haitians in the US, with one parent expressing that French is important for their child to be able to communicate with relatives in France. One parent, however, saw French as a barrier to education in Haitian schools while Haitian children now contend with the challenge of English in their US schools. Moreover, Haitian parents, teachers and students all expressed a strong belief in the maintenance of Haitian culture, traditions, behaviors and languages whilst simultaneously embracing the multicultural world of South Florida. Creole is even used by the teachers when not necessary in the classroom to strengthen bonds between teacher and students. Last, the sense of responsibility to aid other Haitians entails the maintenance of bilingualism. Consequently, according to this article, Haitian students, parents, and teachers are dedicated to the maintenance of Creole for supporting their community, identity, and participating in a multicultural society. The legacy of French as a prestige language associated with power, has also shaped the linguistic identity of Haitians, since the majority believe it is important to maintain and develop it.

5. Barrière, I., Monreau-Merry, M.M (2012).  “Trilingualism of the Haitian Diaspora in NYC: Current and future challenges.” In O. Garcia, Z. Zakharia & b. Otcu (2012) Bilingual Community Education for American Children: Beyond Heritage Languages in a Global City (pp. 247-258). Multilingual Matters.

Analyzing the trilingualism of the Haitian Diaspora in NYC, the authors describe how English, French and Creole coexist in an unequal manner. Drawing on the history of Haitian Creole and the role of French as the prestige language, the authors contrast its favor with that of Creole. Indeed, Creole, which lacked an official orthography until the 1980s, was not recognized as an official language until 1987 (Barrière & Monreau-Merry, 2012). Haitian immigrant students in the US also continue to suffer from misperceptions of their language. According to the authors, Haitians are still assumed to be Francophones. Due to additional problems such as the lack of Haitian school records and the few Haitian Creole-speaking staff in schools, many students are still placed in the wrong classes. Furthermore, the children of Haitian migrants who reside in poor neighborhoods have become multilingual and multidialectal, acquiring African American Vernacular English as well as West Indian English. This linguistic and dialectal diversity has shaped second-generation Haitian immigrants, who either identify as Black American, Haitian or as immigrants. Another development is the prominence of Haitian students in the French programs in NYC launched since the French Embassy’s 2007 ‘French Goes Public’ initiative. According to the researchers, Haitian students comprise 29% of the study body in these French programs (Barrière & Monreau-Merry, 2012). Learning Creole, on the other hand, is less successful. Indeed, the initiatives taken after the 2010 earthquake and the centers or universities offering classes may not be enough to ensure second and third generation Haitians retain the language. Nonetheless, French appears to receive more support than Haitian Creole in both Haiti and New York, thereby demonstrating another example of the ways in which Creole’s lower prestige in both Haiti and the US continues to shape language policies of schools and districts. The absence of first language instruction may even threaten the language’s persistence for subsequent generations.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the aforementioned sources indicate that Haitian Creole instruction and bilingual programs in the US still experience the effects of the colonial French legacy and unequal status and stigma in the US. While there have been some notable attempts to create bilingual programs and support Haitian students with home-language instruction and ESL services, many are not receiving the services they need. In addition, the stigma attached to Creole in Haiti and the US has meant that some Haitian students will not develop full literacy in their L1. Haitian grassroots organizations and academics, based in the US and Haiti, however, have been pushing for more instruction in Creole since teaching in the first language is demonstrated by research to be most effective. Haitian Creole maintenance, in other ways, seems partly guaranteed by the Haitian population in areas like South Florida defining their culture as partly based in Creole. The global Haitian diaspora may also be suggestive of another reason for the maintenance of Creole due to the need for Haitian families dispersed across multiple countries to communicate. This may be relevant for the analysis of language maintenance across generations for other nationalities or ethnic groups with widespread diasporic communities.

The Roving Tree

Elsie Augustave's debut novel, The Roving Tree, is an accessible novel on the experience of a Haitian-American woman raised by whites who adopt her. The novel's emphasis on women and the protagonist, Iris Odys, navigates the protagonist's identity crisis and development while criticizing race relations in the US, the Haitian class system, and Mobutu's Zaire. Given some of the similarities in literary depictions of Duvalier and Mobutu, Augustave's novel is at least innovative for showing the parallels in the two dictators.

Unfortunately, this novel suffers from its very accessibility in that Augustave seems to "dumb" things down significantly. The novel begins to feel more like a simple introduction to Haiti in some ways, although Iris's experiences in Senegal and Zaire was a admirable plot development that thematically matches and completes Iris's great-grandmother's words. As in other immigrant literature, the central theme is one of identity, and Augustave's novel succeeds on that front. Vodou is also very important to advancing this story, an aspect of Haitian-American literature sometimes neglected or ignored.

Katia D. Ulysse's Drifting

It was a blustery dawn when we began our four-hour plane ride to Port-au-Prince. The plane burst with college-aged sets in matching Pray for Haiti Now! and Save Haiti Today! T-shirts. They boasted about their plans for saving the so-called poorest nation in the Western hemisphere. They congratulated one another on their novel ideas. They would do what Haitians could not do for themselves. They would Tweet and post proof of their hard work on social networking sites (16).

Katia D. Ulysse has written an engaging debut novel, Drifting. While structurally the novel is reminiscent of Danticat's The Dew Breaker, and even thematically it reminds one of Danticat's first novel on Haitian immigrant women, Ulysse explores how uprooting the immigrant experience can be in novel ways. The various women and their families are tied together by their roots in Puits Blain, and each experience the effects of immigration in New York differently. Drawing on rural Haiti, the class system, Vodou and folklore, Ulysse shows how immigrating to the US, while often seen as the only real option, does not always retain or strengthen families or improve one's economic station, as evidenced by Marianne and Sagesse, who never experience the so-called "American Dream."

The other families also experience the lack of the so-called "paradise" of New York City through poverty, the struggles of assimilation, a predatory ESL teacher, and family discord. Back in Haiti, things are no better, given the loss of heritage, land, and further decline experienced by many families (Boursicault's funeral business, making him the wealthiest man in the land, is full of dark humor, although he ends up purchasing most of Madan Casseus's land).

Ulysse also has a sense of humor for "difficult" portions of the novel, such as the chapter, "Bereavement Pay." This chapter explores, with a sense of humor, how Haitians in the US found it difficult to take time from work to look for their kin after the earthquake. In addition, the author goes out of her way to allude to popular music, history, religious themes, and folklore to make the story more believable and pertinent to the theme of loss as a result of immigration in the US. The use of Creole, the language dilemma of Creole versus French, the X-signers (the illiterate poor who sacrifice everything to send their children to school) as well as gender roles complicate the narrative. Indeed, while there might be some flexibility and greater "freedom" for women in America, sexism follows them.

Unfortunately, Ulysse does not dedicate more of the pages to Michelle and Freda, whose tale begins the novel. The two sisters experience the 2010 earthquake, but none of the future chapters of the book explore the ramifications of the earthquake. This begs the question, why include the first chapter in the book? Although it certainly aligns well with other themes and families in the text, it is disappointing that more of the book does not address that catastrophe. Perhaps it is one of those cases where more is said with less words.

Dimitry Elias Léger and Edwidge Danticat

Enjoy a discussion between Haitian-American writers Dimitry Elias Léger and Edwidge Danticat on the former's debut novel, God Loves Haiti. The rise of Haitian-American literature is one fascinating trend I hope to continue following. Next on my list of writers is Katia Ulysse. 

Roxane Gay at the Wheeler Centre

Watch this interesting video featuring Roxane Gay at the Wheeler Centre. I had the good fortune to meet Roxane briefly at a book event, and she is warm, proud of her Haitian roots, down to earth, and a talented critic of popular culture. Gay discusses feminism, race, class, and popular culture in this engaging conversation.

God Loves Haiti

"And picking apart the nation's colorful, sorrowful, and thrilling history is all Haitians do. It's a sport, the fucking national pastime. History is all we have to take pride in, since our greatest achievement occurred in 1804 and we haven't contributed fuck-all to humanity in the intervening two centuries save a few good books and paintings."

Just finished Dimitry Elias Léger's God Loves Haiti, an addictive novel worth reading that imagines post-earthquake Haiti through Dantean lens. It's also part of a flourishing literary output by Haitian-American writers, such as Roxane Gay's acclaimed An Untamed State. While the Kindle version seems to have some errors, this short novel can be read in a day, which may be one of its weaknesses. It also struck me as strange that Alain did not notify his parents after surviving the earthquake, and how they could not know he was alive despite him appearing on television for his leadership role in the Place Pigeon refugee camp (appearing with 'Steve,' called Hollywood by Alain, who is based on Sean Penn). Furthermore, the former president based on Aristide lacked any real relevance to this tale, so I am not sure why his presence was included in the novel.

However, the novel's characters are likable and the perhaps not so subtle commentary on Preval, Aristide the international community, and the response to the horrendous goudou-goudou are necessary to counter the horrific views of many abroad, such as the infamous Pat Robertson. Indeed, Monsignor Dorélien believes that Haitians are among God's chosen people, that the earthquake that destroyed their world was a test like those of Biblical times. Léger also has a way of praising Haiti and the people without romanticizing its troubled history. For instance, he writes about how beautiful Port-au-Prince is as Alain's car is flying with him in tow above the city during the earthquake: 

From the sky, strangely, Port-au-Prince looked uncommonly beautiful. He hadn't visited Paris yet, but surely Paris couldn't be as beautiful as his hometown, this jewel of the Caribbean, this diamond in the rough, when viewed from the driver's seat of a car launched two hundred meters above sea level. Awesome. Natasha, he thought, I have got to show her this.

Indeed, one of the more memorable scenes in the novel is the President's vision of himself and all preceding Haitian heads of state at the gates of Heaven, making their case to Saint Peter. Dessalines and Duvalier have some interesting exchanges with Saint Peter in that scene. Likewise, the author does an excellent job capturing the city of Port-au-Prince and the scenes during and after the earthquake. It was depressing but light reading that breathed life into some of Port-au-Prince's landmarks (the National Cathedral assumes great importance for Natasha, and the novel's final scene) and Haitian history. In truth, one should see Port-au-Prince as more than the setting for this love triangle amid such suffering, but as a character whose shapes, contours, and architecture affect the lives of the President, Alain, and Natasha. Life in the tent camps, a love story, Haiti's relationship with the Dominican Republic, death, imperialism, and the significance of history in Haiti as a 'national pastime' all emerge as important themes that shape the novel. 

Impressively, Legér manages to create humor in the most tragic and unexpected places, such as the President's trip to the UN for a meeting with the real powers (the US, France, and other powers on the UN Security Council) who orchestrate the relief effort and pull the strings on the Haitian political system. In the end, people of all walks of life are thrown together as a result of the last thing Haitians expected to turn on them, the earth, and the results are seen in the collective mourning, grave digging teams, tent organizations and their leaders, and ultimate triumph of love and solidarity in the face of insurmountable obstacles, which provides the opportunities for redemption for the President, Alain, and Natasha.

Ayiti

Just finished Roxane Gay's short collection, Ayiti. Some of the stories were no more than 1-3 pages, so it was a quick read. She writes eloquently about Haiti from a diaspora, in such a knowing and loving way. She clearly loves her heritage. Of course, she knows about everything that plagues Haiti, but when it comes to Haitian dignity, pride, and respect, her characters demand it. Again, like in Bad Feminist, there is humour in the tale as well, particularly in the short chapter about her father's thick Haitian accent, or the young Haitian immigrant, Gerard, who faces accusations of H.B.O. in his American school. The best 'treat' of the story collection, however, is her early form of An Untamed State lacking the depth and character background of the novel, as well as without the sordid details of Miri's rape and torture while kidnapped.

Seeing Roxane Gay

I had the rare fortune of meeting and hearing Roxane Gay speak this week. It was a beautiful opportunity, and free at a local bookstore. Gay spoke for a little less than 90 minutes about popular culture, her essays, her love for The Hunger Games, sexism, and the need for open dialogue among different waves of feminism to strengthen the 'ocean.' In short, she was brilliant, down to earth, accessible, humorous, and warm. Although I had only read An Untamed State, I knew right away this is a writer whose nonfiction and fiction writing go hand in hand, especially since both share her gift for storytelling. After the talk, I endeavored to purchase her Bad Feminist to get an autograph but, alas, the store sold out quickly. Being the amazing person that she is, Roxane Gay gave me a copy of her book for free and was glad to meet fellow Haitians! I also asked her about how her Haitian background shaped her feminism and briefly discussed how An Untamed State was semi-autobiographical with great delight. I knew as my mother and I happily left the bookstore that tonight would be one of the highlights of the summer.

An Untamed State

An Untamed State did not live up to some of the hype I had read about. It was certainly one of the most harrowing accounts of a kidnap and sexual violence I have ever read, but I felt that the novel was lacking a certain 'oomph' in other areas. Basically, the strongest prose and detail from the novel comes from Mireille's captivity, her reflections on her life in that hellish, untamed state, and the whirlwind of emotions, mindgames, and events that eventually lead to her liberation. Perhaps I am expecting too much from this novel, which is clearly about the prevalence of sexism and rape culture as well as the cages inside cages inside cages we experience, regardless of being kidnapped, but I would have liked to learn more about the details of the negotiations Sebastien Duval went through with the Commander, Laurent. It would have been very useful to learn more of the particularities of the ransom and deal reached between Mireille's father and her kidnappers, especially since it would show how much he values his youngest child's life (it must have been under one million US dollars, but no figure or number is shared after Mireille's 13 days of hell end).

Anyway, the second half of the book looks at Mireille's experiences with post-traumatic stress syndrome, coping with her injuries, feeling a permanent sense of danger and fear about men, and gaining some recovery, although she will never be the same. She never truly reconciles with her father after allowing her torment to last nearly a fortnight, but she makes peace and truly acknowledges how the US is her home, her identity. In some ways, it's quite a horrifying way for a Haitian-American to become 'American,' after undergoing several days in the Inferno, to be so irrevocably removed from her parents' identity and longing for 'home.' Throughout the novel, commentary on rape, sexualized violence, and the danger Mireille experiences in the US certainly belies Fabienne's point, however, that "Mr. America" (Mireille's husband, Michael) has a very selective memory of the US, since poverty and sexual violence occur there in ways that endanger Mireille, too. Thus, a woman is always in danger when around men, and Mireille's rupture from her former self includes a rupture with Haiti, the childhood home away from home she cherishes. One should certainly read this novel, and appreciate it as one of several examples of the flourishing, nascent Haitian-American literature.

Edwidge Danticat's Claire of the Sea Light

I just finished reading Danticat's latest novel, Claire of the Sea Light. Although the text was enthralling (and the interconnected episodic chapters, which link it structurally with The Dew Breaker, works quite well) and engaging, I am still unsure what to think. At times the novel seemed to clearly allude to recent events or current problems in Haitian society (such as the deteriorating conditions of the country due to deforestation, causing soil erosion, and increases in extreme weather), but remained optimistic. Claire, the titular character, is a young girl whose mother died during her birth, and her father, an illiterate fisherman living in poverty, wants to give her away as a daughter to the childless widow, Madame Gaelle. However, Danticat perfectly weaves together several other characters into their own sub-plots, which all come together thematically and link the characters to their past, present, and future. Definitely worth reading, but as I am still unsure of my final thoughts on the novel, I will have to postpone a further analysis.

Carnival

Although I am not much of a fan of hip-hop and Wyclef Jean these days, I fondly recall discovering his first solo album via some old acquaintances in my youth. He deserves props for trying to fit together R&B, Haitian, Cuban, reggae and hip-hop influences (there's even an opera influence) together in a single album. If only he didn't have so many damn interludes! That would cut down on the length of the album and what is really his only great work post-Fugees. 

Leyla McCalla

Lately I am really digging Leyla McCalla's latest album, a tribute to Langston Hughes and an exploration of Haitian folk music. She's not quite an amazing vocalist, but there is something appealing to her rather unadorned vocal style, plus her banjo and cello skills are enjoyable! She can sound perfectly fine just accompanying herself on the cello or banjo, and possesses classical credentials and folk/old-time cred from playing in New Orleans (as well as with the Carolina Chocolate Drops, an excellent band I once saw live). Check out some of her music here, as well as her excellent rendition of "Lonely House," a Kurt Weill number I have always been fond of. Besides that, I really enjoy her covers of Haitian folk tunes, including "Mesi Bondye" and "Latibonit."