Masculinity and Gender in Digenis Akritas
The Byzantine epic poem, Digenis Akritas, features a heroic frontier military leader on the eastern frontier of the empire after the Byzantine resurgence of the 9th and 10th centuries. As the empire reconquered territory lost to the Arabs centuries ago, the eastern frontier of the empire remained under the control of the military aristocracy, of which Digenis was a member. As a work of literature, the poem’s protagonist represents certain ideals of the society that produced it, especially ideals of masculinity and gender that were reproduced in the daily lives of the people sharing that cultural background. As a product of a deeply Christian medieval empire, the ideals of masculinity depicted in the poem are deeply influenc ed by Christianity, chivalry, ancient Greek traditions, and the cultural values of Byzantine elites. Thus, subaltern classes did not identify with or share the values and morals of the protagonist to the same extent as aristocrats.
The ideals of masculinity presented in the poem are primarily influenced by Christian values and monasticism. The source of the protagonist’s power lies in “having as help the grace of God.”[1] Following the warrior saint traditions of famous historical figures, such as George, Theodore and Demetrius, who are invoked by the hero in the poem, provide the foundations of many of Basil’s superhuman exploits.[2] Like St. George and other warrior saints of the past, Basil slays a dragon, which, like the serpent in the Garden of Eden, endeavors to tempt Basil’s wife.[3] Like the victorious St. George, Basil beheads the three-headed dragon, thereby demonstrating his piety and self-control in the face of desire. In addition, Basil’s love of hunting wild animals and killing lions with his bare hands symbolizes a catharsis for the hero since wild animals symbolize lack of self-control and an inclination to passion. In addition to hunting and dragon-slaying symbolism, Basil also displays piety, kindness, mercy, and humility in his interactions with others. For example, during his meeting with the Byzantine emperor, Basil, he humbles himself before the emperor and recognizes God’s power invested in the imperial office.[4] By humbling himself before the man who rules in God’s name, Basil humbles himself before God, another Christian value. Basil also decides to live away from society with his wife and servants near the Euphrates. Like the monks across the empire, Basil chose isolation from the outside world after committing the sin of adultery twice and lying to his wife about it, then slaying Maximo, the adulteress.[5] Basil also dies before old age and not on a battlefield in the East, which follows Christian views of death as inevitable and a liberating force for the soul. Even with all of his strength, is still human and cannot defeat death after his symbolic baptism while bathing in the Euphrates before becoming ill.[6] Therefore, the ideal man of the Byzantine world would be devoutly Christian, humble, pious, and control his body and emotions, although Basil’s flaws provide evidence of his humanity since nobody could
In addition to profound Christian influences and perspectives on masculinity, Digenis Akritas also follows ancient Greek models and medieval models of chivalry and military lifestyles. Ideal masculinity in terms of the aforementioned models would thus be defined as strength, hunting skills, honor, and possession of women, war experience, and humility. For Basil, his membership in an elite military group that ruled the regions in the East in the name of the emperor, power came with expectations of honor and chivalrous. For instance, during his duel with Philopappos and his sons, he refuses to strike Kinnamos while he was down, since “flogging carcasses is just for weaklings.”[7] The role of protector and guarding women also comes into play for defining the ideal man. His wife, who is never named, is honored for her beauty and in need of constant protection to prevent other men, driven by passion, of abducting her, though Basil kidnapped her as well. This suggests women are prizes to be won in contests between men. Of all the female characters, only Maximo, the Amazon with male characteristics such as strength and initiating her sexual relationship with Basil, is named. One must also take into account the double standard applied to Maximo for committing adultery while Basil sleeps with two different women. Her punishment is death while he has the opportunity to repent, suggesting meaning men have more power and prestige in Byzantine society since their sexual freedoms did not have similar consequences. Masculinity could also be ideally characterized in hunting, strength, and battle victories, exemplified by Basil’s hunting of animals, lion-slaying, defeating Philopappos, Maximo, and the armies of soldiers sent after him which he single-handedly defeats. Furthermore, like the heroes of ancient Greece, Basil must resist the sin of arrogance, or hubris, which Philopappos and his sons could not avoid doing when they boasted of their ability for each to “handle thousands” though they obviously could not defeat Basil.[8] While recalling his defeat of the three, he is careful to distinguish his exploits as boasting, which is additional evidence of the low tolerance for arrogance and the prestige of humility.[9] Like Odysseus and other Greek heroes, Basil must avoid arrogance but simultaneously fights with others over women, like the heroes of the Iliad fighting for Helen.
The identification of masculinity in the text with military training, aristocracy, monasticism, and other privileges of the upper echelon of Byzantine society indicate that its version of idealized masculinity was never the values and morals of everyone in society. As a Christian empire fighting intermittently with Muslim states, everyone in society value strength and Christian values to guide their lives. However, many aspects of Basil’s perceived manliness are characteristics of the elite, such as hunting, fighting in wars, and noble birth. Obviously, most peasants did not have the time to hunt beasts, fight in wars, and dedicate themselves to spiritual perfection and value chivalry in combat like members of the military ruling establishment. The akritai, or frontier soldiers, had these opportunities that the peasant majority lacked. Members of the ruling class, such as Byzantine emperors, such as Michael IV, for example, were seen as masculine for abstaining from sex, meaning that they were resisting carnal or earthly pleasures as a test of their manhood.[10] Yet men were also expected to take the pursuing role in courting women, exactly what Basil does to the lost maiden betrayed by her lover. Clearly the behavior of Byzantine upper classes mirrors that of Basil and more closely matches the morals and values of the text than peasants, who were losing their land and independence to wealthy landowners during this time.
As a result of being passed down through oral tradition before being written in Constantinople, the story has likely changed multiple times, which is attested by the various versions of the text. It is also likely that the writers added more intellectual and religious overtones to the text that may have not been present in the minds of the peasant and other communities that passed it down orally. Either way, the text demonstrates stereotypical gender roles for women as mothers, wives, recipients of male protection and a lack of agency with an emphasis on male superiority and strength. Real men were expected to be strong, control their households, and control themselves when it came to emotions and the body in order to attain spiritual content. Though the poem favors elite forms of masculinity, the common factor of Christianity united the people in their morals and values. Religious symbolism and Christian values embedded in the text would unite all readers and offer a possible contemporary heroic man for Byzantine society during the 11th and 12th centuries.
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