Igbo and African Ancestry

Roseline Siguret's tabulation of African slave "nations" in the Quaarter of Jacmel (from "Esclaves d'indigoteries et de caféières au quartier de Jacmel (1757-1791)"

After reading FonteFelipe's recent blog on African ancestry and matches of his sample of 30 Haitians, we decided to reexamine our own African matches on Ancestry. Unfortunately, we could only find 2 obvious African matches, both Igbo-descended individuals. With one of them we share 23 cM of DNA. Our Haitian parent, who, unsurprisingly, has more African ancestry, shared 29 cM with the same Igbo individual. In addition, they also had African matches who, based on their surnames and publicly posted genealogies, hailed from Mali, Congo, Nigeria, and what appears to be Sierra Leone. The known ethnic breakdown is Igbo, Yoruba, and Mandinka. We could not easily determine the ethnic background of the other Africans. Needless to say, our Haitian parent's African matches were usually of a low degree of shared cM of DNA, 8-16. Her ethnicity estimates assigned 1% Yorubaland, 2% Nigeria-North Central and 2% Nigerian Woodlands (in addition to Mali, Senegal, Ivory Coast & Ghana, Benin & Togo, Cameroon, Western Bantu Peoples). She received a whopping 27% Benin & Togo and 21% Nigeria in the latest update. While there are many problems with her results in the update (her European ancestry is assigned mostly to Spain, even though her previous results assigned the largest European percentage to France), looking at her African matches does suggest some generally useful information on Haitian ancestry. The preponderance of Nigerian matches is likely a reflection of the greater number of Nigerian customers of Ancestry as well as the deep ancestry of Haitians in Nigeria, Benin & Togo and neighboring areas that supplied many of the African captives enslaved in Saint-Domingue. Here is a table breakdown illustrating her matches:

After her match with one Igbo person at 29 cM shared DNA, the next closest match was at 16 cM with someone bearing a Yoruba name. As suggested by FonteFelipe and the work of scholars such as Geggus, there clearly was a larger presence of Igbo and people from the Bight of Biafra in Saint-Domingue's south (which included Jacmel, in the calculations of Geggus). This noticeable Igbo presence is attested to by plantation inventories, testaments, and other contracts mentioning the enslaved population in 18th century Bainet. After Creoles, Igbos were one of the most common groups. The Yoruba ancestry and related Benin/Togo is possibly, in part, represented by the large Creole population among the slaves in Bainet during the second half of the 18th century. Many of the Creoles were likely the children of people who were purchased from the Slave Coast, which would have included various groups represented in Saint-Domingue (like the "Aradas"). This also could have accounted for the "Senegalese" results in our parent's ethnicity estimates. After all, if Senegal was important early on in the French slave trade, then some of the Creoles may have harbored ancestry from Senegambia. As for Mali connection, we assume this to be a sign of ancestry from "Mandingues" and, perhaps, Bambara, in Saint-Domingue. The Bambara would have reached Saint-Domingue through slave trading networks in Senegal, as was likely the case for "Mandingues" who may have not always been clearly distinguished from the Bambara. Interestingly, the Bamana were present among the enslaved in Bainet and one of them played a prominent role during the Haitian Revolution in the Sud (Gilles Bambara). 

Sadly, without more data from African customers or better ethnicity estimate information on African reference panel groups (such as directly telling us which ones we share DNA with), we are still left with only a general picture. Nonetheless, the Igbo contribution to our African ancestry seems very likely based on our shared DNA with one Igbo family. Furthermore, it seems our African ancestry probably includes Mandinka or Malinke (and Bambara?) ancestry as well as Yoruba. To some extent there was undoubtedly a Congolese or Central African contribution, though "Congos" in Bainet could have included Mondongues, Loango, Kongo, and others. As for "Senegal" and areas like Nigeria-North Central, we assume that could be Hausa and Wolof or Fulbe ancestry. Perhaps the "Senegal" and Mali ancestry is slightly inflated by Poulard or Fula, while Nigeria-North Central is from the Hausa or another another northern Nigerian population whose name was not recognized or used in Saint-Domingue. There definitely was a small flow of captives from northern Nigeria, but usually of Hausa or Nupe origin in Saint-Domingue's nomenclature for African "nations." We can only hope that subsequent updates see improvements in the area of Nigeria and West Africa as a whole. 

Ancient Kingdoms of Peru

Although it is a little outdated (published in the 1990s), Nigel Davies's The Ancient Kingdoms of Peru provides a nice overview on the history of ancient Peru. Covering the period from the preceramic and Chavin cultures to the Spanish conquest, Davies attempts to elucidate the development of civilizations in Peru (and neighboring areas, to a certain extent) as well as the shifting analysis of these past cultures by archaeologists and historians. Obviously, the lack of a system of writing and records prior to the Spanish period means that most of the book draws from studies by archaeologists who have examined various sites, developed ceramic typologies and chronologies, and have endeavored to understand the nature of political, social, and economic organization. As the author gets closer to the era of the Spanish conquest, written sources from the colonial period become useful, particularly for the Incas and, to a lesser extent, the Chimu state of the coast. Davies masterfully draws upon this vast written corpus when appropriate, although occasionally delving into problematic "language" of "savages" when discussing Indians in Ecuador who opposed Inca expansion. But this probably reflects the time in which the book was published. As a brief introduction to a very complex center of early human civilization, Davies wrote a useful work. He probably did not need to include his critiques of wacky theories of ancient aliens visiting the Nasca, but perhaps a book aimed for a non-specialist audience had to do so to dispel pseudoscientific ideas. It could have potentially been strengthened by a more detailed breakdown of the verticality theory for Andean civilizations, as well as an overview of how long-distance trade with Ecuador and the Amazon may have impacted pre-Inca civilizations. Nonetheless, for those new to the Moche's marvelous arts and the long-lasting iconographical symbolism across much of the region's civilizations, there was clearly much interaction, migration, exchange, and cultural borrowing from the coast to the highlands. Now, we have to find copies of Miguel de Cabello Balboa, Cieza de Leon, and other early Spanish sources on Peru for a deeper dive into the precolonial past. 

Angels

Although not his best work, this lovely duet of Ayler and Call Cobbs performing "Angels" is a true delight. As someone deeply imbued in gospel, blues, and and "roots" of African American music, Ayler's spiritually-charged "Angels" is nothing but delight for nine minutes. The recording from the Hilversum Session is also excellent, featuring an entire band.

Juan de Espinosa

Whilst perusing Vilma Benzo de Ferrer's Pasajeros a la Espanola, 1492-1530, we saw that the father of Pedro de Espinosa was a resident in today's Dominican Republic before moving to Puerto Rico with the conquest of that island. Established in the Santiago de Los Caballeros area in 1510, Juan de Espinosa later moved to Puerto Rico, where he was one of the early recipients of an encomienda. According to Vilma Benzo de Ferrer, de Espinosa also received 7 naborias de casa in Santiago (although we thought he was already residing in Puerto Rico by 1514?). 

Mali and the "Western Sudan"

Another interesting thing about the Ancestry Update is seeing the 4 reference populations used for their "Mali" region. This area is based on the Bambara, Dogon, Fula and Mende, although they also state that populations with similar genetic background can be found in Burkina Faso, Cote D'Ivoire, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Niger, Senegal (as well as Mali and Sierra Leone). Our Haitian parent, the origin of our "Mali" ancestry, has also matched with people from this region as distant cousins (1 from Mali, another from Sierra Leone of a Mandinka background). Since "Mandingues" and "Bambaras" were present in Saint-Domingue, it seems very likely that some of our ancestors came from this region of West Africa. Indeed, Ancestry assigned us 6% in the 2024 update, and the "hacked" results put it at 6.89% for "Mali." Perhaps some of our distant forebears were from Segu or Kaarta, but were captured and sold to the French slave traders on the coast of Senegal?

Ancestry's "Senegal" category also overlaps with this, which we inherited from both sides for a total of 4% (3.80% according to the "hacked" results). Alas, the specific ethnic groups used as reference for this category are not listed, although we know Poulards, "Senegalois" and Wolofs were in Saint-Domingue. We suspect the "Senegal" inherited from our Spanish Caribbean ancestry might reflect some of the ethnic groups known to be in the West Indies in the 1500s and 1600s, such as the Wolof, Berbersi, and others. Unfortunately, without knowing the ethnic breakdown of the reference populations for "Senegal" and other West African regions, like Ivory Coast and Ghana, it is difficult to say.

African Ancestry Update

Although these popular genealogy/ancestry DNA tests should always be used cautiously, we do find Ancestry's 2024 update to be worthy of attention. They seem to be trying harder at distinguishing the various subregions of African countries. Thus, Nigeria, an enormous place occupied by a plethora of ethnic groups, finally has a number of new regions. It looks like other parts of sub-Saharan Africa may have to wait for a subsequent update to see this level of detail, but it's a step in the right direction. However, comparing our results and those of our Haitian parent to their previous results, we notice that the 2024 update seems to minimize Cameroon, Congo, and Western Bantu Peoples percentages. Since in both of our cases, our sub-Saharan African ancestry was always overwhelmingly West African, the latest update was not too different from past results. However, we wonder if the creation of new Nigeria regions may have absorbed some of the Cameroon that was previously lumped into the older category of Cameroon, Congo and Western Bantu Peoples. 

Unfortunately, in our case we did not see any African sub-regional breakdowns besides Central Nigeria and North-Central Nigeria, each one at an estimated 5%. Central Nigeria is "centered" upon the Niger-Benue Confluence region, stretching north and south to what seems to us as an unknown extent. This presumably overlaps with North-Central Nigeria, also assigned at 5%, which is centered on the area of Hausaland in northern Nigeria and southern Niger (but including the following ethnic groups: Afizere, Anaguta, Atyap, Berom, Ham and Hausa). Of course, there are other ethnic groups in Northern Nigeria, but North-Central seems to emphasize the Hausa in the north. Central Nigeria, on the other hand, remains a vague label, but based on the following groups as reference: Agatu (Idoma North), Ake, Alago (Idoma Nokwu), Arum, Bu, Eggon (Mo Egon), Gwandara, Mada, Mama, Mijili (aJijili), Ninzo, and Rindre . If the North-Central Nigeria percentage is accurate, however, perhaps we do have "Hausa" ancestry. After all, a small but noticeable number of Hausa were enslaved in Saint-Domingue. But far more Igbo were imported, and a Nupe presence was also present. Historian David Geggus found at least 227 Hausa in Saint-Domingue, plus another 60 "Gambari" based on his study of sex ratios of the enslaved population from 1721-1797. 

The Little Sparrow Murders

Fortunately, The Little Sparrow Murders features a lot of our favorite of all scruffy detectives, Kosuke Kindaichi. Set in 1955 but using a murder case from 1932 as a historical background and context for the current crime, this novel sees our hero crack the case of a multiple murders in a Japanese village. Like the other novels available in English, much of the novel seems to reflect the social and economic changes in Japan after World War II, albeit to a lesser extent in this case. Instead, Kindaichi must identify who is killing young women in the village, with many twists and turns and red herrings about what actually transpired in the 1930s and what is the connection between the murders and a temari song only remembered by elders. Strangely, however, the author chooses to rush the conclusion by having an elaborate trap set up to force the murderer to play their hand (although Kindaichi already knew who it was, of course). Unfortunately, this rushed ending, plus the inevitable final scene with Kindaichi explaining the case to the assembled members, is a somewhat perplexing series of events that deprives the reader of the full suspense, action, and resolution one would like. Nonetheless, it is great to read a mystery featuring Kindaichi which heavily features his presence and deductions. Isokawa was also occasionally humorous and the reader learns more about an important friend of Kindaichi. We cannot wait to read more translations of this series. 

Yayi

Classic from Roger Colas, one of our better singers. Nothing beats a potpourri of songs performed by a great vocalist and backing band. 

Jazz's Holy Ghost

Richard Koloda's Holy Ghost: The Life And Death Of Free Jazz Pioneer Albert Ayler manages to provide a biography and overview of Ayler's work in less than 300 pages. Tragically cut short, Ayler's music presents a challenge. His last recordings were, quite frankly, mostly unsuccessful attempts to reach a larger audience with a popular or R&B oriented sound. While Ayler was definitely rooted in the same musical traditions that led to R&B, his forays in that direction suffered from some poor singing, lyrics, and a lack of a solid band. Yet, just before his presumed suicide, Ayler seemed optimistic and spoke of an upcoming tour in Japan. He had also returned from a successful trip in Europe, so things seemed to have been looking bright again for jazz's Holy Ghost. Unfortunately, the end of Ayler's brief life and career deprived us of the opportunity to see which direction he was about to take musically. Undoubtedly, it would have been a spiritually-charged music that showcased his unique voice and talent as a saxophonist. But would he have found musical partners as great as his previous ones? Musicians of the caliber of Peacock, Murray, Cecil Taylor, or a Donald Ayler who matched so perfectly with Ayler's direction? The problem of finding a solid band of musicians seems to have particularly plagued Ayler after the brilliant performances and recordings of the mid-1960s, which gave us classics like "Ghosts" or "Spirits Rejoice." No one else quite mastered his ability to take folkloric, spiritual, gospel, and the blues to unheard of heights through masterful use of the higher register of the saxophone, collective improvisation and even playfulness. 

With the benefit of Koloda's book, Ayler's complex music and the directions it took over the pivotal early period of free jazz is clearly presented. Ayler's personal life, with some questionable choices (abandoning his first son, not working regularly at club dates in NYC to support his wife and child, kicking out members of his group without telling them, and the split with his brother, Donald) help us understand him as a musician and human being. Some of the religious, spiritually-charged and New Age-like philosophy is hard to stomach now. But it was specific to that era, particularly in the avant-garde of jazz, and Ayler was undeniably part of the Trinity (Coltrane, Sanders, Ayler). Koloda also, despite his own obvious affection for the Ayler brothers, tries to remain fair with lengthy quotations and excerpts, showing the opinion of both aficionados and harsh critics of Ayler's oeuvre. In his own way, Koloda also demonstrates some respect for Amiri Baraka's support for the Aylers, although the anti-Semitic and simple-minded "Crow Jim" attitudes about white musicians are extreme or unnecessary. At the end of the day, one only wishes the author relied less heavily on extensive quotes (sometimes repeated more than once). But for everyone interested in a study of Ayler that attempts to balance biography and analysis of his music, one would not be wrong to begin here. 

Summertime with Ayler

A young Albert Ayler brilliantly performed Gershwin's classic on My Name Is Albert Ayler. Although not as "out" as hi subsequent work, Ayler's love for folk, gospel, and traditional musical elements was a recurring feature in his oeuvre. Therefore, it is no surprise "Summertime" appealed to him. The standard, inspired by African American spirituals and culture, would have resonated with Albert's own interest in the same source material. Alas, if only we had recordings of later Ayler renditions of "Summertime" from his live performances in mid-1960s New York.

Inca Culture at the Time of the Spanish Conquest

Although Rowe's Inca Culture at the Time of the Spanish Conquest was published in the 1940s, some modern scholars have lauded the study as a worthwhile one that still holds up today. As part of a larger project on South America's indigenous peoples, Rowe's relatively short but comprehensive overview of the Inca in the last few centuries before Spanish rule endeavored to cover everything from religious practices to agriculture. Due to the time it was published, before our era's more advanced archaeological methods and technology, Rowe mostly relies on the written sources from the 1500s and 1600s, placing especial esteem for Cobo. El Inca Garcilaso and Blas Valera, especially on matters of religion, were considered less reliable by Rowe. Polo de Ondegardo, interrogations from the governorship of Toledo, and interesting references to Diego Gonzalez Holguin, Cabello, Morua, and others illustrate just how vast the uneven corpus of Spanish sources on the Inca past truly is. It is also noteworthy how some scholars of the present century seem to place more confidence in Blas Valera and even some of the information in the problematic chronicle of Montesinos. In our own opinion, Rowe was perhaps writing too soon to know the type of information available to later scholars on pre-Inca large kingdoms or territories in the highlands. But Rowe's mastery of the relevant source material and attempt to balance it with references drawn from the ethnographic present and archaeology is impressive. For instance, careful examination of the early grammaires and dictionaries of Quechua is indispensable for reconstructing the preconquest past. Thus, our readings in the Inca past have barely scratched the surface. 

Toparvisan

According to Richard Koloda's study of Albert Ayler, the famous "Ghosts" is based on the Swedish folksong called "Torparvisan." While it is difficult to detect the similarity, supposedly the Swedish tune's harmonic structure was used by Ayler. Since Ayler spent part of his short life in Scandinavia, playing jazz with locals and other international musicians, it is certainly possible he was exposed to Scandinavian folk music. We also know Ayler was deeply influenced by folk, blues, and spirituals in the US, so it is not too much of a stretch for him to have been influenced by Swedish music. 

Blue Midnight

A classic from Little Walter, the man who could produce a sound with the harmonica no one else could match. Apparently, a young Albert Ayler toured with Little Walter, perhaps another sign of how deeply imbued Ayler's music was with the blues.

Casa Loma Stomp

"Casa Loma Stomp" is another one of those classics from the Swing era...not that they're the most musically proficient band of that time. These cats just knew how to swing in a euphoric manner.

The Lāmīb̳e of Fombina: A Political History of Adamawa, 1809-1901

The Lāmīb̳e of Fombina: A Political History of Adamawa, 1809-1901 by Sa'ad Abubakar analyzes the rise and fall of a jihadist state founded by the Fulbe, or Fulani, in the vast region of Fombina. Unlike other emirates within the Sokoto Caliphate, Fombina lacked a prior history of political centralization. Instead, the large province was shared by a plethora of ethnic groups living in small chiefdoms. The Fulani int he area, who already had a presence by the 18th century, were also divided into smaller clan and lineage groups. While Borno and Mandara had some degree of influence in the area through trade, raiding and conquest, and the Jukun state appears to have exerted some degree of influence there previously, Fombina's non-Fulbe lived in "theocratic" chiefdoms and small-scale polities. Long-distance trade was limited and the Fulani in the pre-jihad period lived under the dictates of the non-Muslim, non-Fulani sedentary populations. That said, the Fulani themselves were only weakly Islamized prior to the 19th century, preferring to live by pulaku and customary laws and tradition rather than Islamic ones. 

Nonetheless, events in the 19th century led to a rapid transformation of this area, turning it into one of the largest yet most decentralized emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate. The jihad in Fombina, propelled by Modibbo Adama, was strengthened by incoming Fulani migrants who were fleeing Borno after al-Kanemi's victories against Gwoni Mukhtar and other jihadists. In addition, some of the Fulani clan leaders led an expansion into the southern areas to claim new pasture and lands, subjugating pagan sedentary groups. By the 1840s, with a capital established at Yola, the Adamawa emirate was a large, decentralized state with various sub-emirates that largely acted independently of Yola. According to Abubakar, this decentralized nature of Adamawa was due to the incomplete conquest of the Habe populations in the region (many rebelled and sometimes cut off loyal provinces) and the resistance of Fulani Ardo'en and sub-emirs to obey the emir in Yola. While tribute and participation in the military campaigns of the emir were expected and could be gained from loyal provinces, southern sub-emirates often ignored or rebelled against this. In addition, not all Fulani clans were included in the Adamawa leadership, and Islam itself was not widely practiced or observed by the Fulani. Thus, some ignored or disobeyed the emir at Yola. This problem only worsened as some of the sub-emirates experienced dynastic crises or internal wars over succession, a problem the ruler at Yola could not always alleviate. 

Ultimately, by the end of the century, the partition of this vast, loosely joined state was inevitable. British, French and German interests in the Benue and Chad Basin made its longevity numbered. The state, to its credit, was able to consolidate some of its gains and implement a real administrative machinery (with titles borrowed from Hausa and Kanuri, as well as other parts of the Sokoto Caliphate), and the use of slaves for food crop production and the promotion of trade (particularly ivory) did promote some degree of economic development and improvement in conditions for Fulani and allied leaders. Furthermore, the invitation extended to Muslim scholars and pilgrims attracted a larger class of pious Islamic leaders, who in turn promoted a deeper spread and adherence to Islam. Earlier in its existence, it also scored victories against Mandara and was able to protect its northern border with Borno. The state was even able to survive the Mahdist movement and the Sudanese warlord, Rabeh, ultimately falling to the European powers. 

The central theme here appears to be one in which the incomplete centralization of the Adamawa Emirate hindered its ability to establish a stable political system. Of course, This uneven centralization of the state appears to have been a result of the region's lack of such a system before the 19th century, as well as the particular nature of Fulbe society and political traditions. Thus, instead of a jihadist state that had the political traditions of Hausa states with centuries of political traditions, Modibbo Adama and his successors had to create one wholesale, borrowing from the ideals of the Sokoto Caliphate, Borno, and Hausaland. Indeed, Adama is said to have studied and lived in Borno and adopted some of its titled positions in his administration, testifying to the importance of these older political systems in Adamawa attempt at reforms. Abubakar likewise endeavors to include pagan, non-Fulbe peoples as part of this story, albeit their perspective is more dependent on oral tradition and often lost in the entangled histories of the various sub-emirates. 

The Village of Eight Graves

The Village of Eight Graves is yet another mystery novel featuring our favorite scruffy detective, Kosuke Kindaich. Like his other cases, this one takes place in post-WWII Japan and features a dysfunctional family (the Tajimi). Perhaps to add variety to what could have been a formulaic exercise of writing detective fiction, Kindaichi is actually a rather marginal character in this novel. The narrator, and central character, is the illegitimate child of the previous head of the Tajimi family, a man whose murderous spree fueled the superstitions of the villagers. See, in the late 16th century, the residents of Eight Graves had massacred a samurai and his retainers but failed to locate the gold they brought with them. So, this novel uses the backdrop of the legend of the missing gold and the belief in a curse on the Tajimi family for their role in the massacre of the samurai to blend elements of adventure fiction with a detective story. It usually works, surprisingly, but since the narrator is a character not privy to the investigation of Kindaichi, the detective's role in the story is a little disappointing. Further, the mystery of the "whodunit" was a little underwhelming since the readers are mainly receiving their information and clues from a protagonist often committing his own amateurish investigating. This uneven attempt at balancing a mystery novel and an adventure novel certainly deserves points for effort, but does not quite deliver on either end. That said, the mystery element here did bring back fond memories of Agatha Christie's The A.B.C. Murders. But for those who prefer their sleuth being more central to the narrative, this one was weaker than some of the other translated Kindaichi novels.