Ayutthaya History

Although we are still complete beginners in Southeast Asian history, we recently finished Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit's A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World. An ambitious work that begins with pre-Ayutthaya history and ends with the Bangkok-era Chakri dynasty, Baker and Phongpaichit present several centuries of history. Beginning with early Bronze Age, Iron Age, and agricultural communities, one sees how Thailand's history predates Ayutthaya, Sukhothai, and states founded or associated with Tai-speaking peoples by millennia. The rise of long-distance trade, Indic culture, and the later Dvaravati civilization, which was likely more of a cultural than political entity, paved the path for later polities in which Ayutthaya emerged. Already established as a militarily expansive and commercial state, early Ayutthaya built its wealth through Asian trade. After a period in which military expansion was key, what could perhaps be considered "Middle Ayutthaya" rulers focused on commerce and strengthening Ayutthaya's position as an Asian entrepot. 

This era, after Naresuan, is especially interesting for the various Chinese, Persian, French, Dutch, Siam, and Burmese sources available. While the large estimates of the royal capital's population and the emergence of a peasantry may require further analysis, Siam was undoubtedly a major center of Southeast Asia's "Age of Commerce." The Persian, Japanese, European, Chinese, Malay, and Indian connections illustrate quite clearly how Siam was a central node in Asian trade. This commercial society, according to our authors, gradually changed as the nobility gained further power and control over labor (phrai). Consequently, Buddhism and the ideal king changed to meet the needs of a society with greater social discord, banditry, revolt, and inequality after the 1688 revolution. We will have to read Baker and Phongpaichit's other book to find out what transpired after Ayutthaya fell and Siam encountered the Western powers in the 19th century. 

Girard and the Tanos

Although we have issues with Philippe Girard's scholarship on Haiti, this is a decent introduction to the history of the Taino. Except for the suggestion that ganja or marijuana was part of the cohoba ritual, Girard does a decent job covering the history of the Taino. Of course, accepting the demise of the Taino as an organized society after the Spanish conquest makes Girard a supporter of the Taino extinction narrative. 

Duroseau Meringues

Some catchy classics of Haitian music recorded in the 1950s. The musical Duroseau family surprised us with one very well known Haitian standard.

The Civilization of Angkor

Out of a desire to learn more about Angkor, we recently read Charles Higham's The Civilization of Angkor. Eager to read an overview of this ancient Khmer civilization less outdated than that of Georges Coedes, who heavily relied on inscriptions and was somewhat dismissive of "pre-Indianized" peoples in the region, Higham's short account establishes the deeper roots of the civilization that produced Angkor. Indeed, the degree of long-distance trade and social inequality already in place, detected through archaeology, indicates that "Indianization" was a local adoption and adaptation of Indic religious and cultural practices. What was more surprising to learn was the strong evidence against older interpretations of Angkor's authority being rooted in royal control of irrigation networks. Indeed, Higham suggests the various dynasties of this Khmer civilization were perhaps more akin to the type of "galatic polity" described by Tambiah. In other words, central authority was weak in the provinces and conflict within the court or the center common. Nonetheless, it looks like Coedes and past scholars were correct about the role of the Shiva cult, institution of devaraja, and temple complexes and merit-making as core components of state authority and ideology. Indeed, this is perhaps another parallel with the type of state "networks" described by Kenneth Hall for precolonial Southeast Asian states. We only wish more was known of Funan, the Chenla polities, and the nature of slavery and bonded labor.

Of Cannibals and Kings

Neil Whitehead's Of Cannibals and Kings: Primal Anthropology in the Americas has been on our reading list for some time. A short book consisting of English translations of early Spanish sources on the indigenous Caribbean and an introductory essay by Whitehead, it is important for offering a new translation (based on the Italian) of Ramon Pané and a translation of Rodrigo de Navarrete and Rodrigo de Figueroa. Although Whitehead unconvincingly posits possibly "Taino" or Amerindian influences on Haitian Vodou and West Indian obeah, suggesting Damballa, zombi and perhaps even bokor may be at least in part derived from native Caribbean spirituality and religion, his essay raised a number of legitimate questions about the ways in which scholars have engaged in linguistic analysis of Pané's brief account. Moreover, the translation of Rodrigo de Navarrete's brief relation of the "Aruacas" (who appear to have been centered in the area of Guyana) provides an interesting description of indigenous South American "allies" of the Spanish. Indeed, if the category of caribe was a political rather than ethnic identifier, at least in how it was used by Columbus, Chanca, Figueroa and Navarrete, that dichotomy was clearly understood by indigenous actors who, like the Aruacas, appear to have used trade and alliances with the Spanish to expand their power and settlements against their caribe enemies. Even more intriguing is the unnamed morisco survivor of a shipwreck who lived for years among the Aruacas. He was one of the main informants of Navarrete and perhaps would have given his native hosts a more nuanced perspective on Castile and its history of aggression and expansion. Unfortuantely, Navarette did not share all of the details he learned about the Aruacas (Arawaks), but his brief relation indicates a culture in which astronomical knowledge and lore was important to the shamans. Indeed, similar astronomical lore appears to have been important for the "Carib" and "Taino" shaman class, who likewise played a pivotal role in the ceremonies using song to record history, genealogy, and the deeds of great men. 

Taino Documentary

Somehow we have forgotten about this documentary on the Taino. It raises some interesting questions, such as when a yucayeque can be considered a town or city. Also, it is rather respectful of "neo-Taino" claims of cultural continuity and survival. The scene featuring Puerto Ricans recreating the cohoba ritual and the use of a duho is interesting but hard to imagine it being close to what the actual practice looked like. A self-proclaimed cacique claims to have been able to revive it based on oral traditions passed down throughout the centuries in Puerto Rico. Of course, it is difficult to see how such a ceremony that was aberrant to Spanish and Catholic authorities could have been reconstructed from 20th and 21st century Puerto Rican oral traditions. 

A Record of Cambodia

Although the extant text appears to be perhaps 1/3 of the original work, Zhao Daguan's A Record of Cambodia: The Land and Its People is a priceless source. Translated into English by Peter Harris, the short account's readable description of Cambodia in the late 13th century brings this vastly different time and place to life. Despite Zhao Daguan's own cultural biases and possible omissions and corruption to the text, an overview of Khmer society, religion, agriculture, landscape, flora, fauna, and the royal court is at least partially described. Keeping the aforementioned shortcomings of the text in mind, one can carefully use Zhao Daguan, with insights from local inscriptions, archaeology, and art history, to reconstruct a complex civilization. 

Zhao Daguan, for instance, highlights the role of slavery as a pervasive institution in society. Slaves, often taken from highland "savage" populations, were so despised that sleeping with them was considered a reprehensible act, though occasionally done by resident Chinese. Agriculture was undoubtedly the basis for the realm's wealth and stability, and local trade was dominated by women. According to Zhao Daguan, women were easy to find, food plentiful, and clothing requirements light, so many Chinese sailors sought to stay in Cambodia. The growing Chinese presence in the kingdom also led to a decline in respect for Chinese merchants as they became more common. Chinese customs such as using paper in lavatories were strange to the local Khmer, just as Zhao Daguan saw local women as lascivious. The far-ranging trade networks of the Khmer extended to, perhaps, India in the west (and likely beyond) to Chinese ceramic ware, manufactured goods, silks,and other products. Recent wars or battles with Siam had devastated part of the kingdom. Nonetheless, people from Siam were also residing in Cambodia, associated with silk and textile production. 

Zhao Daguan also noted with approval how even the "barbarian" people of Cambodia knew how to venerate an absolute ruler (Indravarman III). The various temples and monumental architecture of the capital seems to have impressed him, too. Art, architecture, religion, and the numerous relatives of the king were tied to royal administration and legitimacy. Numerous officials of the state were relatives of the king or people who provided their daughters as concubines to him. The old legend of a snake spirit cohabiting with the king and allusions to Buddhist and Siva/Hindu rituals clearly establish a close relationship with the temples, monks, and priests. While Zhao Daguan did not understand the Hindu-derived pandits and Siva worship, his allusions to them suggest strongly localized cults which were patronized by the royal court.

Southeast Asia's Critical Crossroads

We have perhaps exhausted our interest in general histories of Southeast Asia. Anthony Reid's A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads covers over 2000 years of history in a little over 400 pages. Any attempt to cover the history of an entire region in a single volume will undoubtedly contain omissions and some simplifications, but this particular book is especially strong on the period from c.1500 onwards. Due to the author's specialization on the Age of Commerce and more recent eras in Southeast Asian history, the earlier period of "Indianized" kingdoms does not receive as much attention as some would like. Moreover, due to the vast terrain and types of post-colonial wars, conflicts, and Cold War confrontations, some of the intricate details of events like the Vietnam War and US intervention in Indochina do not receive the attention as US reader might expect. That said, this is a worthwhile read for those of us who, though somewhat familiar with the region, can find specific information and references to learn more about topics or themes of personal interest. As a crossroads vital for global exchange and what Reid sees as distinct patterns of gender relations, post-colonial nation-building, and economic development in the tropics, the Southeast Asian case offers some fruit avenues for comparison with other regions. Moreover, the history of the region's Chinese communities or the role of "weak" states in the precolonial area becomes an even more interesting development as anti-colonial leaders sought to create centralized states on territory carved by European powers. We hope to continue to pursue the history of this region with specific case studies that emphasize specific nations or areas. 

Wangara Chronicle

Although unfortunately too brief, a 17th century chronicle on the origins of Wangara Islamic scholars in 15th century Kano is a priceless document. Translated into English by Muhammad Al-Hajj, "A Seventeenth Century Chronicle On the Origins and Missionary Activities of the Wangarawa" corroborates some of the information in the famous Kano Chronicle. Based on the quality of paper and writing style of the manuscript, Al-Hajj believes the document was probably written down in the 1700s or perhaps earlier, in 1650/51 according to the colophon. That said, it contains information on Shaikh Zagaite and Wangara traders influencing Muhammad Rumfa from a period of perhaps 150 years earlier than that of its author. Thus, the chronicle likely relies on a mix of oral traditions and some documents to trace the genealogy of descendants of Zagaite. Its earlier section on the migration of Zagaite from Wangara (near Maqzara, or what was sometimes called Takrur) through Mali, Gobir, Azben, Katsina and Kano seems to draw from oral traditions that sought to explain the presence of Wangara in various parts of West Africa. This illustrates the wider diasporic network of Wangara traders and Muslim teachers who undoubtedly played a critical role in the Islamization of Kano, Katsina and other parts of West Africa. This network must have brought Islamic influences into parts of the Hausaland just as Islamic influences from the east, via Borno, and Islamic influences from the north likely converged to a greater extent in the 14th and 15th centuries.

Besides providing a short explanation of Shaikh Zagaite's gradual migration to Kano, the chronicle also connects him to al-Maghili (Sidi Fari), a famous North African scholar who had influenced Askia Muhammad of Songhay and Muhammad Rumfa of Kano. According to this chronicle, both Zagaithe and al-Maghili were respected scholars who contributed to the spread of Islam. Indeed, a miraculous account reported here claims that Shaikh Zagaite's intercession was necessary for the Muslims to successfully cut down a sacred tree of the pagans. After Zagaite's intercession through prayer, a mosque was built on the grounds of the tree, another symbol of Islam's victory over pre-Islamic traditions in Kano. In addition, Zagaite was said to have surpassed an Egyptian visitor in terms of scholarship, suggesting that the critical study of al-Khalil in Kano began with Zagaite. According to Al-Hajj, however, the chronicler was actually incorrect so the anecdote was likely inserted or distorted to suggest a greater intellectual stature for Zagaite than an Egyptian. Regardless of this possibly distorted or fabricated anecdote, the chronicle places Zagaite on a similar level as al-Maghili in terms of influence and respect from Muhammad Rumfa. This suggests that Wangara Muslim scholars were perceived as similarly knowledgeable and reputable as North Africans in late 15th century Kano. 

Indeed, according to this chronicle, Zagaite and his sons were rewarded by Muhammad Rumfa with fiefs or lands. Zagaite actually wanted his progeny to carry on the tradition of learning and close relations with the rulers of Kano, too. Thus, the genealogical information recorded in the chronicle may have been motivated by a desire to combat discord and divisions among the descendants of Zagaite. Perhaps, over a 150 years or more, the extended family had been divided and conflict over royal patronage had become significant enough to warrant a short family history. Indeed, discord within kinship groups and disrespect for one's parents were repeatedly mentioned as sinful behavior. Thus, the primary purpose of this short text may have been to remind descendants of Zagaite of their common origin and restore some degree of harmony to a family divided by time and politics. Recalling an ancestor believed to possess baraka and to have performed miracles through the aid of God must have been a powerful way to assert this, even if readers in the 21st century obviously do not believe demons or devils sprung forth from the sacred tamarind tree or that Zagaite was able to lower the depth of the sea (Niger River?) when leaving Mali to perform the pilgrimage. Unfortunately, allusions to Borno were absent but allusions in the Diwan and Kano Chronicle indicate influences from Kanem-Borno in Kano by the late 14th century. 

Saharan Jews and al-Maghili

John Hunwick's short study of al-Maghili and the Jews of Tamantit is a fascinating read. Although our interest in al-Maghili is mainly in his time and influence in Hausaland and Songhay, learning about other aspects of his Islamic scholarship and biases sheds furhter light on the full social and intellectual context of his era. Unfortunately for the Jews of Tamantit and those in Songhay, al-Maghili was able to rouse anger and resentment against them for having a synagogue, dressing like Muslims, and enjoying close ties to rulers. According to al-Maghili and other Islamic scholars, such behavior was a violation of the pact that protected dhimmis. Thus, the Jews of the Saharan oasis lost their synagogue and much of its population fled. Furthermore, through al-Maghili's influence on Askia Muhammad of Songhay, Jews were banished or prevented entry to Timbuktu. Although Jewish traders and residents appear to have been allowed back in Timbuktu by the late 18th century, such a move by Askia Muhammad indicates the degree to which he was influenced by al-Maghili's views. 

Moreover, it must have played a role in redirecting or perhaps even harming parts of the trans-Saharan trade routes that connected the Western Sudan and the Maghrib. Indeed, if Jews in North Africa and Saharan towns like Touat and Sijilmassa were important for financing and conducting trade across the desert, banning them from Timbuktu and attacking them in North Africa must have weakened. Hunwick, however, sees the tightening of restrictions and, basically, pogroms, against Jews in parts of North Africa as a result of growing economic pressure during an era of burgeoning European penetration of Africa. Jews, an increasing population due to expulsions from Spain may have become the scapegoats as Islamic scholars like al-Maghili sought to target them through religious policy. Such a theory is plausible, although one wonders if Jewish traders simply shifted their Sudan trade networks further east and west, perhaps to the benefit of regions like Fazzan, Borno, and parts of Hausaland. Despite al-Maghili's influence in late 15th century Kano, one does not hear of anti-Jewish harassment or policies. Indeed, even with hints of anti-Jewish prejudice in one of the Borno documents collected by H.R. Palmer, there never appears to have been an attempt by Borno rulers to target Jewish traders or prohibit their entry. 

Encomiendas and Indian Slavery in Puerto Rico

Eugenio Fernandez Mendez's Las encomiendas y esclavitud de los indios de Puerto Rico, 1508-1550 is a brief study of the forced labor and coercion in the first half of 16th century Borinquen. Drawing primarily from the Spanish chroniclers and sources such as those compiled in Tapia's Biblioteca de Puerto Rico, this short book focuses on the Spanish conquest and the various repartimientos and divisions of Indians into encomiendas until the final dissolution of the encomiendas. Unfortunately, by c.1550 their population was decimated and devastated by the encomiendas and outright enslavement. "Carib" and Indian slaves from Yucatan, Panuco, or Tierra Firme were still not enough to address the labor shortages and other problems facing the colony. However, the indigenous population of the island survived and went on to form part of the Puerto Rican population. Fernandez Mendez cites sources attesting to an Indian presence larger than that asserted by Rodrigo de Bastidas for the 1540s. Indeed, even after the Laws of 1542, illegal enslavement of Indians continued. These and other "free" Indians not enumerated in the 1540s undoubtedly persisted, helping to explain some of the markedly "Indian" features in Puerto Rican culture long after the demise of encomiendas. What would have made this study more valuable would have been an examination of Taino resistance to the encomiendas after the 1511 rebellion. Perhaps a deeper look at indios alzados and African slave rebels could have shed light on this other dynamic in 16th century Puerto Rico. 

Aint It Funky Now Guitar

Catfish Collins playing one the best guitar solos in funk music with James Brown shouting and wailing in the background is priceless. If only Fred Wesley didn't always play the "same" solo every time...or if someone like Maceo Parker was available on the alto sax to play an extended solo...